21 Again, our data can do little to distinguish among these or other mechanisms of political influence. Some evidence for this proposition comes from the 2011 Cooperative Congressional Election Study. The field was fundamentally established by the works of Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley, in the 1920s, and Claude Shannon in the 1940s. In most cases the over-all median preference is the same as the median income (fiftieth percentile) preference. Footnote 49 Chapter 4 Theories of Social Work Practice Mel Gray Objectives By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: understand key social work theories understand the difference among the terms theory, knowledge, perspective, framework, method, approach and model understand the meaning of key terms such as development, social development, developmental social welfare, It is important to note, however, that what might theoretically happen will not necessarily ever happen in practice. 14 Bentley Reference Bentley1908; Truman Reference Truman1971, especially 511. Divides such as ethnicity, religion, language, political, and class in and of themselves do not necessarily lead to hostilities among the groups in multicultural societies. Ordinary least squares analysis parallel to the structural equation model presented in table 3. found that a simple proxy for their indexthe number of reputedly powerful interest groups (from among groups appearing over the years in Fortune magazines Power 25 lists) that favored a given policy change, minus the number that opposed itcorrelated quite substantially in their cases with the full interest-group index (r=0.73). 15 Dahl Reference Dahl1956, Reference Dahl1989. We can only allude to a few central pieces of work in each tradition. Introduction to Social Work (pp. The electoral reward and punishment version of democratic control through electionsin which voters retrospectively judge how well the results of government policy have satisfied their basic interests and values, and politicians enact policies in anticipation of judgments that they expect will later be made by what V.O. Memory loss is usually described as Footnote 29 For empirical evidence that its conditions tend to be satisfied, see Page and Shapiro 1992 and Gilens Reference Gilens and Berinsky2011. Caught in the vortex: Can local government community development workers succeed in South Africa? In general, theories of interest-group pluralism predict that only organized interest groups will have positive, significant, and substantial effects upon public policy. Paper presented at the ASASWEI (Association of South African Social Work Education Institutions) Conference, Johannesburg, South Africa. Nor do we find an association between the preferences of economic elites and the alignments of either mass-based or business-oriented groups. The latest Lifestyle | Daily Life news, tips, opinion and advice from The Sydney Morning Herald covering life and relationships, beauty, fashion, health & wellbeing This does not mean that theories of Economic-Elite Domination are wholly upheld, since our results indicate that individual elites must share their policy influence with organized interest groups. It is simply not the case that a host of diverse, broadly-based interest groups take policy standsand bring about actual policiesthat reflect what the general public wants. The theory postulates that an individual will perform a cost-benefit analysis to determine whether an option is right for them. Footnote 5 Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer. But the picture changes markedly when all three independent variables are included in the multivariate Model 4 and are tested against each other. PCS is not mainstreamed in the organisational culture and structure; and in the stages of its intervention programming. Academia.edu uses cookies to personalize content, tailor ads and improve the user experience. The rather low explanatory power of all three independent variables taken together (with an R-squared of just .074 in Model 4) may partly result from the limitations of our proxy measures, particularly with respect to economic elites (since our affluent proxy is admittedly imperfect) and perhaps with respect to interest groups (since only a small fraction of politically-active groups are included in our measure). The paper also presents and discusses the tension between theory verification and theory generation in Peace and Conflict Research. Jacob Hacker and Paul Piersons analysis of winner-take-all-politics, which emphasizes the power of the finance industry, can be seen as a recent contribution to the literature of biased pluralism. Return to the home page. In a now-classic study (1959), social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven developed a schema of sources of power by which to analyse how power plays work (or fail to work) in a specific relationship. Onaran, Ozlem The Chambers average success rate in terms of proportion of bills enacted or defeated appears to have been fairly high, Still, many quantitatively-oriented political scientists seem to ignore or dismiss such non-quantitative evidence. In a now-classic study (1959), social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven developed a schema of sources of power by which to analyse how power plays work (or fail to work) in a specific relationship. Influence proceeds from groups, not from wealthy (or other) individuals. Footnote 44 In order to cope with varying income categories across surveys, he employed a quadratic logistic regression technique to estimate the opinions of respondents at the tenth income percentile (quite poor), the fiftieth percentile (median), and the ninetieth percentile (fairly affluent). When we rescaled these indices to reflect the differing numbers of business and mass-based groups engaged on each issue, the standard deviation of the business alignment index was .158 and the mass-oriented index .096; their associations with policy outcomes (analogous to those shown in table 4) were almost identical, at .38 (p<.01) and .40 (p<.001), respectively. A locked padlock) or https:// means youve safely connected to the .gov website. Recent research by Larry Bartels and by one of the present authors (Gilens), which explicitly brings the preferences of affluent Americans into the analysis along with the preferences of those lower in the income distribution, indicates that the apparent connection between public policy and the preferences of the average citizen may indeed be largely or entirely spurious. Most important, we see no reason to think that informational expertise is always accompanied by an inclination to transcend one's own interests or a determination to work for the common good. If past events could not be remembered, it would be impossible for language, relationships, or personal identity to develop. The analysis is based on existing literature, a qualitative analysis of African media reports, and quantitative results from the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project. Moreover, there is no indication that officials anticipation of reactions from potential groups brings policies in line with what citizens want. the top one-tenth of 1 percent? . to explore the issues surrounding pharmacy academic capacity building. This may necessitate some changes in the Peace and Conflict Studies curriculum, capacity building, and change of attitude to encourage the teaching and adoption of appropriate methodology for theory building. Rational choice theory refers to a set of guidelines that help understand economic and social behaviour. It should be put to empirical test. Gilens and a small army of research assistants Patel, L., Hochfeld, T., Graham, L. & Selipsky, L. (2008). The failure of theories of Majoritarian Electoral Democracy is all the more striking because it goes against the likely effects of the limitations of our data. Some of Theda Skocpols early work (e.g., Skocpol and Finegold Reference Skocpol and Finegold1982) can be seen as based on a state-centric elite theory that emphasizes public officials. What are we to make of findings that seem to go against volumes of persuasive theorizing and much quantitative research, by asserting that the average citizen or the median voter has little or no independent influence on public policy? Moreover, because of the strong status quo bias built into the U.S. political system, even when fairly large majorities of Americans favor policy change, they generally do not get it. But they also reflectto some degree, at leastthe second face of power: the ability to shape the agenda of issues that policy makers consider. Still, economic elites stand out as quite influentialmore so than any other set of actors studied herein the making of U.S. public policy. In any case, normative advocates of populistic democracy may not be enthusiastic about democracy by coincidence, in which ordinary citizens get what they want from government only when they happen to agree with elites or interest groups that are really calling the shots. The influence coefficients for both mass-based and business-oriented interest groups are positive and highly significant statistically, but the coefficient for business groups is nearly twice as large as that for the mass groups. 3. A discussion of the existing literature and how this present research contributes to the area should be included. Theories of majoritarian electoral democracy, as positive or empirical theories, attribute U.S. government policies chiefly to the collective will of average citizens, who are seen as empowered by democratic elections. Moreover, we are not so sure about the informational advantages of elites. 7. Andrew File System (AFS) ended service on January 1, 2021. We conclude by discussing the implications of our work for understanding American democracy and by identifying some of the directions for future research that our findings suggest. The first instalment of a three-part feature length film, exposing the social exclusion experienced by homeless people suffering with tuberculosis in county Kent, will launch on Friday 9 December. Chapter 2 discusses the realist theory of IR and its evolution. Clearly, when one holds constant net interest-group alignments and the preferences of affluent Americans, it makes very little difference what the general public thinks. Under the relevant assumptions, public policy that fits the preferences of the median voter is not only the empirically-predicted equilibrium result of two-party electoral competition; as the Condorcet winner it also has the normative property of being the most democratic policy, in the sense that it would be preferred to any alternative policy in head-to-head majority-rule voting by all citizens. The first instalment of a three-part feature length film, exposing the social exclusion experienced by homeless people suffering with tuberculosis in county Kent, will launch on Friday 9 December. For example, if, on a particular non-monotonic item, the five income groups had imputed median preferences of .50, .60, .70 .65 and .55 (for the tenth to ninetieth income percentiles, respectively), then the estimated over-all median preference would be .60 (in this case equaling the preference at the thirtieth income percentile). Overall, net interest-group alignments are not significantly related to the preferences of average citizens. 35 Correlations of the policy preferences of the top 2 percent with those of the top 10 percent are based on the 76 CCES respondents who reported at least $350,000 in family income. For example, C. Wright Mills important book, The Power Elite, offers a rather nuanced account of how U.S. social, economic, political, and military elites have historically alternated in different configurations of dominance. Others focus on issues on which the public is fairly evenly divided. 2, Downs offers a clever though somewhat indeterminate non-dimensional version of the theory; in ch. If we had data on the activity of the thousands of groups not included in our net interest-group alignment measure, we might find many cases in which a group (perhaps unopposed by any other groups) got its way. It lists twenty-five theories in PCR and classified them using the core distinction issues in Peace and Conflict Studies and the traditional classifications based on agency and structural and political economy. A discussion of the existing literature and how this present research contributes to the area should be included. 2014. 44 Even if existing organized groups did not reflect the wishes of average citizens, officials anticipated reactions to unformed potential groups might in theory provide some representation for average citizens, as David Truman argued they do. One is the nearly total failure of median voter and other Majoritarian Electoral Democracy theories. Interestingly, mass-based groups were somewhat more likely to take stands on both sides of an issue, for example pro-life and pro-choice groups on abortion, or the AARP which opposed the Clinton health reform plan and the AFL-CIO that favored it. To help you find what you are looking for: Check the URL (web address) for misspellings or errors. To go a step further, theories of Majoritarian Pluralism predict relatively more independent influence upon policy by mass-based interest groups than do theories of Biased Pluralism. The primary objective behind the development of object oriented approach is basically to eliminate that limitations of procedural programming method. "useRatesEcommerce": false Books from Oxford Scholarship Online, Oxford Handbooks Online, Oxford Medicine Online, Oxford Clinical Psychology, and Very Short Introductions, as well as the AMA Manual of Style, have all migrated to Oxford Academic.. Read more about books migrating to Oxford Academic.. You can now search across all these OUP Within a single statistical model, we estimate the independent impact upon our dependent variable (policy change) of each of three independent variables: the average citizens policy preferences (preferences at the fiftieth income percentile); the policy preferences of economic elites (measured by policy preferences at the ninetieth income percentile); and the stands of interest groups (the Net Interest-Group Alignment Index). What we publish. This theory plays much role in the building of women capacity and capabilities as development is concerned. Peace and Conflict Sensitivity Capacity (PCSC), therefore, becomes a critical competence for an agency intervening in conflict. Relatively few mass-based interest groups are active, they do not (in the aggregate) represent the public very well, and they have less collective impact on policy than do business-oriented groupswhose stands tend to be negatively related to the preferences of average citizens. John Rawls' Theory of Justice (1971) Building on the work of Immanuel Kant with its presumption of limits on the state, John Rawls (19212002), in A Theory of Justice (1971), proposed a contractarian approach whereby rational people in a hypothetical "original position" would set aside their individual preferences and capacities under a "veil of ignorance" and agree to 45 Schlozman, Verba, and Brady Reference Schlozman, Verba and Brady2012, ch. The dependent variable is the policy outcome, coded 1 if the proposed policy change took place within four years of the survey date and 0 if it did not. You can download the paper by clicking the button above. Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed.It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. A further complexity in assessing interest-group influence involves policy cases in which groups take no stand at all, which are not included in the analysis by either Smith or Baumgartner et al. Each of four theoretical traditions in the study of American politicswhich can be characterized as theories of Majoritarian Electoral Democracy, Economic-Elite Domination, and two types of interest-group pluralism, Majoritarian Pluralism and Biased Pluralismoffers different predictions about which sets of actors have how much influence over public policy: average Footnote 2, An important modern incarnation of this tradition is found in rational choice theories of electoral democracy, in which vote-seeking parties or candidates in a two-party system tend to converge at the mid-point of citizens policy preferences. Footnote 26 More strikingly, even overwhelmingly large pro-change majorities, with 80 percent of the public favoring a policy change, got that change only about 43 percent of the time. and But the evidence that collective policy preferences are generally rather stable over time suggests that expressed collective policy preferences may not often diverge markedly from subsequently manifested latent preferences. Implications of developmental social welfare for occupational social work. Accordingly, we computed separate net-interest-group-alignment indices for business-oriented and for mass-based groups (refer to Appendix 1 for lists of each) and included both of them in a new multivariate analysis, along with the preferences of average citizens and economic elitesdropping our previous measure of the net alignment of all interest groups. Nor do organized interest groups substitute for direct citizen influence, by embodying citizens will and ensuring that their wishes prevail in the fashion postulated by theories of Majoritarian Pluralism. It highlights the most basic of the core field definition and distinction issues in Peace and Conflict Studieswhat peace is; the nature, causes, outbreak, and dynamics of conflict; and the means for resolving conflict and building sustainable peace. This casts grave doubt on David Trumans and others argument that organized interest groups tend to do a good job of representing the population as a whole. Of those 1,923 original cases, 1,779 cases also met the criteria of providing income breakdowns for respondents, not involving a Constitutional amendment or a Supreme Court ruling (which might entail a quite different policy-making process), and involving a clear, as opposed to partial or ambiguous, actual presence or absence of policy change. Americans do enjoy many features central to democratic governance, such as regular elections, freedom of speech and association, and a widespread (if still contested) franchise. Figure 1 Predicted probability of policy adoption (dark lines, left axes) by policy disposition; the distribution of preferences (gray columns, right axes). See also Jacobs and Page Reference Jacobs and Page2005, which indicates that the general public may have little or no influence on U.S. foreign policy, when the preferences of business leaders and other elites are taken into account. Available at, Coming to Terms with V.O. 5G networks are predicted to have more than 1.7 billion subscribers and account for 25% of the worldwide The theory postulates that an individual will perform a cost-benefit analysis to determine whether an option is right for them. 8 Key Reference Key1961, ch. A helpful way to assess the relative influence of each set of actors is to compare how the predicted probability of policy change alters when moving from one point to another on their distributions of policy dispositions, while holding other actors preferences constant at their neutral points (50 percent favorable for average citizens and for economic elites, and a net interest-group alignment score of 0). Cabinet minister Gillian Keegan suggested extending ban on police and military taking industrial action to other sectors The set of policy alternatives that we analyze is considerably broader than the set discussed seriously by policy makers or brought to a vote in Congress, and our alternatives are (on average) more popular among the general public than among interest groups. The standards represent the fundamental knowledge, skills, and practices intrinsic to building leadership that improve student learning. 31 In 2012, the tenth percentile of household income was about $12,200, the fiftieth percentile about $51,000, and the ninetieth percentile about $146,000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). By using our site, you agree to our collection of information through the use of cookies. 24 Bauer, Pool, and Dexter 1963; Milbrath Reference Milbrath1963; McChesney Reference McChesney1997. Thomas Ferguson has posited an investment theory of politics in which major investorsespecially representatives of particular industrial sectorsfund political parties in order to get policies that suit their economic interests. Information theory is the scientific study of the quantification, storage, and communication of information. Using art and communication for development to work with internally-displaced adolescents in Mindanao, Issues and Challenges of Transition to e-Voting Technology in Nigeria, political socialization and violence free elections, Architectonics of Peace and Conflict Studies 1, INTER-AGENCY COLLABORATION BETWEEN THE NIGERIA POLICE AND LAGOS STATE TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (LASTMA) IN LAGOS STATE, The Effects of Transnational Organized Crime in Nigeria (David Kwabena Bonsoh), POST-ELECTORAL VIOLENCE AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA, ELECTORAL REFORMS AND ITS IMPACT ON ELECTORAL CREDIBILITY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY OF GHANA, NIGERIA AND INDIA, THE IMPACT OF CATTLE RUSTLING AND BANDITRY ON LIVELIHOODS OF PASTORAL COMMUNITIES IN KATSINA STATE, NIGERIA. 2. Footnote 15, A major challenge to majoritarian pluralist theories, however, is posed by Mancur Olsons argument that collective action by large, dispersed sets of individuals with individually small but collectively large interests tends to be prevented by the free rider problem. In telecommunications, 5G is the fifth-generation technology standard for broadband cellular networks, which cellular phone companies began deploying worldwide in 2019, and is the planned successor to the 4G networks which provide connectivity to most current cellphones. Who really rules? Modern Social Science Journal, Vol 2 No.2, 2013 pp 87-112, Compare: A Journal of Comparative Education, State UniversityAfrobarometer Conference on Micro- , International Journal of Conflict and Violence, Public Policy and Administration Research, ABUAD Journal of Humanities, the General Studies Unit, Afe Babalola University, African Traditional Education: A Viable Alternative for Peace Building Process in Modern Africa, Is Clientelism at Work in African Elections? According to French and Raven, power must be distinguished from influence in the following way: power is that state of affairs which holds in a given Thus, the views of our moderately high-income affluent respondents appear to capture useful information about the views of the truly wealthy. We apologize for any inconvenience and are here to help you find similar resources. Stockhammer, Engelbert Chapter 2 discusses the realist theory of IR and its evolution. Advantages and Disadvantages of object oriented programming. But since most political influence proceeds through groups, a multivariate analysis that includes both interest-group alignments and citizens preferences should show far more independent influence by the groups than the citizens. Footnote 48. (In Marxist theory, neither income nor wealth accurately signals class position.) PDF | On Mar 16, 2018, Radhika Kapur published Leadership Theories and Practices | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Return to the home page. In this article an overview of qualitative research, the origin of grounded theory, its different schools and relationship with substantive theory are provided. Rational choice theory refers to a set of guidelines that help understand economic and social behaviour. Footnote 16, Olsons argument points toward an important variant line of thinking within the pluralist tradition: theories of biased pluralism, which posit struggles among an unrepresentative universe of interest groupscharacterized by E.E. The first text dealing with this approach ) took a similar approach to that being taken in this book, examining the various methods of social work (casework, group work, community development, research, consultation and management) and contexts of social work practice (cultural diversity, poverty, crime, violence against women and among youth, and HIV and AIDS) from a developmental social work perspective. Reference Baumgartner, Berry, Hojnacki, Kimball and Leech2009. Footnote 10 We cannot say anything directly about the non-economic aspects of certain elite theories, especially those that emphasize actors who may not be highly paid, such as public officials and political party activists. 42 See Monroe Reference Monroe1979, Reference Monroe1998; Page and Shapiro Reference Page and Shapiro1983; Stimson, MacKuen, and Erikson Reference Stimson, MacKuen and Erikson1995. Welcome to books on Oxford Academic. Explore science topics to find research in your field such as publications, questions, research projects, and methods. Also feminists were able to bring awareness of gender 2014. Of course our findings speak most directly to the first face of power: the ability of actors to shape policy outcomes on contested issues. Yet nearly all the empirical evidence has been essentially bivariate. The distinction must be made between a singular geographic information system, which is a single installation of software and data for a particular use, along with associated hardware, staff, and institutions (e.g., the GIS for a particular city government); and GIS software, a general-purpose application program that is intended to be used in many individual geographic . Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed.It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. } 27 Numerical success rates are not reported in Smith Reference Smith2000, but the enactment scorecard line in figure 4.1 (83) appears to show Chamber success on 60 percent or more of the bills in most years, with very substantial variation from year to year. This page may have been moved, deleted, or is otherwise unavailable. But how much do they know about the human impact of Social Security, Medicare, food stamps, or unemployment insurance, none of which is likely to be crucial to their own well-being? Based on 13 policy-preference questions asked on this survey, the preferences of the top 2 percent of income earners (a group that might be thought truly wealthy) are much more highly correlated with the preferences of the top 10 percent of earners than with the preferences of the average survey respondent (r=.91 versus .69). Until very recently it has not been possible to test these theories against each other in a systematic, quantitative fashion. We cannot be sure whether we are capturing the political influence of the wealthiest Americans (the top 1 percent of wealth-holders? Little wonder that each theoretical tradition has its strong adherents. The findings should be presented in the context of any similar previous research and or theories. The latest Lifestyle | Daily Life news, tips, opinion and advice from The Sydney Morning Herald covering life and relationships, beauty, fashion, health & wellbeing This English-language text comes from the 1888 publication edited by Engels. Perhaps they know better which policies will benefit everyone, and perhaps they seek the common good, rather than selfish ends, when deciding which policies to support. 6. The five SSA countries studied were Nigeria, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa (black sample). Browse our listings to find jobs in Germany for expats, including jobs for English speakers or those in your native language. Oxford Academic is the home of academic research from Oxford University Press (OUP), the world's largest university press. The study adopted a Peace and Conflict Sensitivity Framework (PCSF) in assessing the extent to which peace and conflict sensitivity is mainstreamed in the NDDC institutional context and its interventions. 40 For correlations of individual groups positions with average citizens preferences see Gilens Reference Gilens2012, 15657. for this article. John Rawls' Theory of Justice (1971) Building on the work of Immanuel Kant with its presumption of limits on the state, John Rawls (19212002), in A Theory of Justice (1971), proposed a contractarian approach whereby rational people in a hypothetical "original position" would set aside their individual preferences and capacities under a "veil of ignorance" and agree to Many also allow for some independent influence by business interest groupsand therefore probably by interest groups taken as a wholethough their emphasis is on wealthy individuals. Johannesburg: CSDA Report. With our present data we cannot tell. But the interest-group system as a whole does not. 28 Baumgartner et al. Not all elite theories share this focus. This page may have been moved, deleted, or is otherwise unavailable. Building Police Integrity; An Introduction. Back to basics: A critique of the strengths perspective in social work, Mamphele Ramphele and Xhosa culture: Some insights on culture, self-determination and human rights for South African social work. The estimated impact of average citizens preferences drops precipitously, to a non-significant, near-zero level. [citation not found] They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights "to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being" and which are "inherent in all human beings", regardless 38 For more detail on the Index of Net Interest Group Alignment, see Gilens Reference Gilens2012, 12730. hbbd`b`yxAH01x8?6 p endstream endobj startxref 0 %%EOF 275 0 obj <>stream . because it includes industries that do not lobby through centralized trade organizations, it is nonlinear in net number of groups, and it reflects the extent to which a particular issue is central to the concerns of an interest group or industry. But we know from table 2 that they are not in fact significantly correlated at all. The theory postulates that an individual will perform a cost-benefit analysis to determine whether an option is right for them. Reference Baumgartner, Berry, Hojnacki, Kimball and Leech2009, 225. Such thinking goes back at least to Tocqueville, who (during the Jacksonian era) saw American majorities as omnipotentparticularly at the state leveland worried about tyranny of the majority. On the 1,357 proposed policy changes for which at least one interest group was coded as favoring or opposing change, in only 36 percent of the cases did most groups favor change, while in 55 percent of the cases most groups opposed change. Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of traffic or modal split generates demand for space greater than the available street capacity; this point is commonly termed saturation.There are a number of specific circumstances which cause or aggravate congestion; most of them reduce the capacity of a road at a given point or over a certain length, or increase the number of vehicles Thus the fate of these policies can reflect policy makers refusing to consider them rather than considering but rejecting them. Table 4 also confirms our earlier findings about economic elites and median voters. 25 Smith Reference Smith2000; Baumgartner et al. As the Communist Manifesto put it, The bourgeoisie has . Predictors are the logits of the imputed percent of respondents at the fiftieth (average citizens) or ninetieth (economic elites) income percentile that favor the proposed policy change, and the Net Interest-Group Alignment Index described in the text. Robert Michels Reference Michels2001, a founder of modern elite theory, emphasized positions of leadership in political parties. Several contemporary analysts of interest-group politics likewise appear to accept (at least implicitly) a picture of group struggle that results in more or less majoritarian results. National Geographic stories take you on a journey thats always enlightening, often surprising, and unfailingly fascinating. Three stories told, Economic literacy and the war on poverty: a social work challenge, A strengths perspective on supervision of social workers : an alternative management paradigm within a social development context, Social policy and social work in South Africa, Social work education in a changing socio-political and economic dispensation: Perspectives from South Africa, Towards the reconceptualisation of social welfare in South Africa: an analysis of recent policy trends, Social Work: A Beginner's Text - Chapter 2 - Historical Development of Social Work, Developmental social work in South Africa: Translating policy into practice. Has data issue: true 2014. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. Improving student achievement is the central responsibility of school leadership. Just as previous literature suggests, each of three broad theoretical traditionsMajoritarian Electoral Democracy, Economic-Elite Domination, and interest-group pluralismseems to gain support. Economic-Elite Domination theories do rather well in our analysis, even though our findings probably understate the political influence of elites. Curricular Blueprinting: The Relevance of American Social Work Education for International Students, Social Development and Minimum Standards in Social Work Education in South Africa, Supervision: A force for change? Goda, Thomas Given the nature of our data, we focus on the societal sources of influence that these theories posit, rather than on the mechanisms of influence that they discuss. hasContentIssue true, Influence upon Policy of Average Citizens, Economic Elites, and Interest Groups, Copyright American Political Science Association 2014. Our focus here is on theories that emphasize the policy-making importance of economic elites. Theory is the fourth cornerstone of the science business. 1.) To the set of groups on the Power 25 lists (which seemed to neglect certain major business interests) he added ten key industries that had reported the highest lobbying expenditures. This theory plays much role in the building of women capacity and capabilities as development is concerned. Our results provide substantial support for theories of Economic-Elite Domination and for theories of Biased Pluralism, but not for theories of Majoritarian Electoral Democracy or Majoritarian Pluralism. conquered for itself, in the modern representative State, exclusive political sway. This may necessitate some changes in the Peace and Conflict Studies curriculum, capacity building, and change of attitude to encourage the teaching and adoption of appropriate methodology for theory building. Interest-group alignments are almost totally unrelated to the preferences of average citizens. 43 Perhaps counterintuitively, it turns out that business groups tilted somewhat less toward opposing proposed changes (33 percent opposed, 26 percent in favor) than mass-based groups did (38 percent opposed, 20 percent in favor.). The included policies are not restricted to the narrow Washington policy agenda. At the same timesince they were seen as worth asking poll questions aboutthey tend to concern matters of relatively high salience, about which it is plausible that average citizens may have real opinions and may exert some political influence. However, the paper, rooted in and with an explicit orientation in peace and conflict scholarship and practice, posits that psycho-social restructuring of the minds of Nigerians through Critical Peace Education will lead to social-psychological re-engineering of the infrastructures of group relations. Here, too, the imperfections of our measure of interest-group alignment (though probably less severe than in the case of economically-elite individuals) suggest, a fortiori, that the actual influence of organized groups may be even greater than we have found. A leading classic remains Schattschneiders analysis of the 1928 enactment of the Smoot-Hawley tariff, an astounding orgy of pork-barrel politics. Visit the U.S. Department of State Archive Websites page. This paper examines managerial leadership and its cultural and historical foundations in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Using this technique, the median over-all preferences and the median-income preferences track each other very closely: r=.997. Madison argued that struggles among the diverse factions that would be found in an extensive republic would lead to policies more or less representative of the needs and interests of the citizenry as a wholeor at least would tend to defeat tyrannical policies, including the much-feared issuance of inflationary paper money that might cater to local majority factions of farmer-debtors but would be costly to merchant creditors. This is the logic behind assessing the institutional capacity of the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) for peace and conflict sensitivity. Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of traffic or modal split generates demand for space greater than the available street capacity; this point is commonly termed saturation.There are a number of specific circumstances which cause or aggravate congestion; most of them reduce the capacity of a road at a given point or over a certain length, or increase the number of vehicles ), or, conceivably, the less affluent but more numerous citizens around the ninetieth income percentile whose preferences are directly gauged by our measure. We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Empirical support for Majoritarian Pluralism looks very shaky, indeed. Charles Lindblom outlined a number of waysincluding the privileged position of businessin which business firms and their associations influence public policy. We cannot precisely test the predictions of such theories, because we lack good measures of policy preferences by economic class. N=1,779. Andrew File System (AFS) ended service on January 1, 2021. The following assumptions are embedded within the ELCC school building-level leadership preparation standards: 1. In a now-classic study (1959), social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven developed a schema of sources of power by which to analyse how power plays work (or fail to work) in a specific relationship. Hostname: page-component-5959bf8d4d-dtbwl Most such theories allow for some (though not much) independent influence by average citizens, e.g., on non-economic social issues. The standardized coefficients for model 4 in this table are .01, .21, and .16 for average citizens, economic elites, and interest groups, respectively. 2 Lincoln 1863. 46 For the 369 out of 1,779 cases in which both business-based and mass-based interest groups took a stand, the coefficients are just .09 (n.s.) Lockwood, Benjamin %PDF-1.6 % Inclusion of no-stand cases would be necessary if one sought to assess the extent to which groups affect over-all policy resultsthough not for assessing the extent of group influence in the cases where influence attempts are actually made. Andrew File System (AFS) ended service on January 1, 2021. Van Breda, A. D. (2007, 3-4 September). Clearly the median citizen or median voter at the heart of theories of Majoritarian Electoral Democracy does not do well when put up against economic elites and organized interest groups. Footnote 3. The findings should be presented in the context of any similar previous research and or theories. Since the preferences of ordinary citizens tend to be positively correlated with the preferences of economic elites, ordinary citizens often win the policies they want, even if they are more or less coincidental beneficiaries rather than causes of the victory. By contrastagain with other actors held constanta proposed policy change with low support among economically-elite Americans (one out of five in favor) is adopted only about 18 percent of the time, while a proposed change with high support (four out of five in favor) is adopted about 45 percent of the time. Here we treat most theories that emphasize corporate organizations or industrial sectors (e.g., Block Reference Block2007, Ferguson Reference Ferguson1995) as primarily constituting interest group rather than elite theories. Numerous case studies have detailed instances in which all but the most dedicated skeptic is likely to perceive interest-group influence at work. Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. In any case, we need to reiterate that our data concern economic elites. This bivariate correlation affects how we should interpret our later multivariate findings in terms of winners and losers. It also suggests a reason why serious scholars might keep adhering to both the Majoritarian Electoral Democracy and the Economic-Elite Domination theoretical traditions, even if one of them may be dead wrong in terms of causal impact. It presents the assumptions of critical pedagogy and critical peace education and the four key principles of peace education pedagogyholism, values formation, dialogue and critical empowermentas prerequisite in constructing the defenses for peace in the minds of Nigerians. As noted, our evidence does not indicate that in U.S. policy making the average citizen always loses out. Mills noted that his elites derived in substantial proportions from the upper classes, including the very rich and corporate executives, but their elite status was not defined by their wealth. 23 Schattschneider Reference Schattschneider1935. Each is supported by a great deal of empirical evidencesome of it quantitative, some historical, some observationalconcerning the importance of various sets of actors (or, all too often, a single set of actors) in U.S. policy making. Use our site search. Our measures are far from perfect, but we hope that this first step will help inspire further research into what we see as some of the most fundamental questions about American politics. Footnote 25. He describes how his interest in organisational downsizing led to the study. Such political structures undoubtedly have their advantages. Policy making is not necessarily a zero-sum game among these actors. Aware of the collective action problem, officials may feel free to ignore much of the population and act against the interests of the average citizen. Weinzierl, Matthew To help you find what you are looking for: Check the URL (web address) for misspellings or errors. Footnote 14, Robert Dahls analysis of New Haven city politics was Madisonian or Truman-like in its insistence that many (all?) When it is not, the preference differences across income levels tend to be small. Footnote 33. The advantage of business-oriented groups in shaping policy outcomes reflects their numerical advantage within the interest-group universe in Washington, and also the infrequency with which business groups are found simultaneously on both sides of a proposed policy change. Thus Critical Peace Education is a viable and effective strategy to empower Nigerians to transcend inherent divides, participate actively and nonviolently in building and sustaining a democratic culture and a progressive society. Berry Reference Berry1999 emphasizes the rising power of citizen groups.. Mays Theorem establishes that simple majority rule is the only collective decision rule for choosing between two alternatives that satisfies the Arrow-type democratic conditions of decisiveness, anonymity, neutrality, and positive responsiveness to individuals preferences; May 1952. Business- and Mass-Based Interest-Groups Included in Net Group Alignment Indices. But net interest-group stands are not substantially correlated with the preferences of average citizens. Footnote 1 Potential groups do not take up the slack, either, since average citizens preferences have little or no independent impact on policy after existing groups stands are controlled for. What we publish. Published online by Cambridge University Press: The Greifswalder approach was developed over many years in the co-operation of environmental philosophers and ecological economists. However, the intersection of this divides across socio-political lines has been sources and causes of tension, violence and terrorism in the Nigerian experience. Footnote 27 PDF | On Jul 1, 2016, Y. Erisen and others published COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate When one set of actors wins, others may win as well, if their preferences are positively correlated with each other. 48 For the analysis in table 4, both the business and mass interest group indices were scaled to run from 0 to 1. Such latent preferences are related to the ideal, authentic preferences that some political theorists see as superior to, and more worthy of governmental responsiveness than, the policy preferences that citizens actually express. Again, the implication of these limitations in our data is that interest groups and economic elites actually wield more policy influence than our estimates indicate. Prior to the availability of the data set that we analyze here, no one we are aware of has succeeded at assessing interest-group influence over a comprehensive set of issues, while taking into account the impact of either the public at large or economic eliteslet alone analyzing all three types of potential influences simultaneously. Moreover, in harmony with theories of biased pluralism, the evidence clearly indicates that most interest groups and lobbyists represent business firms or professionals. For example, economic elites tend to prefer lower levels of government spending on practically everything, while business groups and specific industries frequently lobby for spending in areas from which they stand to gain. 19 Marx and Engels Reference Marx, Engels and Tucker1972. Search the most recent archived version of state.gov. View all Google Scholar citations A final point: Even in a bivariate, descriptive sense, our evidence indicates that the responsiveness of the U.S. political system when the general public wants government action is severely limited. The paper hinges its arguments on the perpetual group conflicts in Nigeria on the Ethnic Conflict Theory and Enemy System Theory, and its potentials of Critical Peace Education on the Integrative Theory of Peace. Still cant find what youre [] (Our data set includes only policies thought to be important enough for a national opinion survey to ask a question about it. 266 0 obj <> endobj 273 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<15E6DFB419CD4F798949D3128CBB11ED><000D92DED0DC43DB844D83CF128506C3>]/Index[266 10]/Info 265 0 R/Length 49/Prev 717205/Root 267 0 R/Size 276/Type/XRef/W[1 2 0]>>stream Standard errors are asymptotically distribution-free, and all analyses reflect estimated measurement error in the predictors, as described in Appendix 2. Political scientists have advanced federalism as a political arrangement for managing tensions inherent in multicultural societies. But it cannot have greatly inflated our estimate of average citizens influence on policy making, which is near zero. In their multivariate analyses, Baumgartner et al. Thus even rather slight measured differences between preferences of the affluent and the median citizen may signal situations in which economic-elites want something quite different from most Americans and they generally get their way. We cannot test this prediction because we do not haveand cannot easily imagine how to obtaingood data on individuals deep, underlying interests or values, as opposed to their expressed policy preferences. (The remaining cases involved equal numbers for and against.) We know that interest groups and policy makers themselves often devote considerable effort to shaping opinion. Perhaps the most 'indigenous' model to emerge in South Africa is that of 'developmental social work', which is by far the most dominant social work approach referred to in contemporary South African social work literature. Table 1 Theoretical predictions concerning the independent influence of sets of actors upon policy outcomes. Keywords: critical pedagogy, critical peace education, democracy, democratic culture, peace education. We focus on possible sources of influence among individuals and groups in society. In light of this epistemology, the author posits that values, followed by data, take preeminence in the applied Social Sciences field of Peace and Conflict Studies. Footnote 4 Information theory is the scientific study of the quantification, storage, and communication of information. We believe that our measure of net interest group alignment (described later) is actually superior to the Fortune 25 proxy examined by Baumgartner et al. Oxford Academic is the home of academic research from Oxford University Press (OUP), the world's largest university press. [citation not found] They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights "to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being" and which are "inherent in all human beings", regardless Welcome to books on Oxford Academic. While this body of research is rich and variegated, it can loosely be divided into four families of theories: Majoritarian Electoral Democracy, Economic-Elite Domination, and two types of interest-group pluralismMajoritarian Pluralism, in which the interests of all citizens are more or less equally represented, and Biased Pluralism, in which corporations, business associations, and professional groups predominate. Use our site search. New empirical research will be needed to pin down precisely who knows how much, and what, about which public policies. PDF | On Mar 16, 2018, Radhika Kapur published Leadership Theories and Practices | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Lester Milbrath, having conducted interviews with lobbyists and members of Congress, rated lobbyists influence as very low. Footnote 7. Our dependent variable is a measure of whether or not the policy change proposed in each survey question was actually adopted within four years after the question was asked. Leaving aside the difficult issue of divergent interests and motives, we would urge that the superior wisdom of economic elites or organized interest groups should not simply be assumed. for mass groups but .48** (p<.001) for business groups. Truman offered a comprehensive and still-interesting catalogue of lobbying techniques and other methods of group influence. This fact certainly points toward Biased rather than Majoritarian Pluralism. Born in Knigsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have made him one of the most influential figures in modern Western philosophy. Footnote 46, Table 4 The separate policy impact of business-oriented and mass-based interest groups. More recently, Fred McChesney has made the ingenious argument that campaign contributions from interest groups may not represent quid pro quo bribery attempts by groups, but instead result from extortion by politicians who threaten to harm the groups interests. By contrast, economic elites are estimated to have a quite substantial, highly significant, independent impact on policy. emanate from the majority of all citizens; 222. Thus, Net Interest-Group Alignment = ln(# Strongly Favor + [0.5 * # Somewhat Favor] + 1) - ln(# Strongly Oppose + [0.5 * # Somewhat Oppose] + 1). The paper examines ontological presuppositions and epistemological branches of Peace and Conflict Studies. In all cases in which the relationship between income and preferences is monotonic, and in all cases in which there is no systematic relationship at all between the two, the preferences of the median-income respondent are identical to those of the median-preference respondent. Return to the home page. Immanuel Kant (UK: / k n t /, US: / k n t /, German: [manuel kant]; 22 April 1724 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Not only do ordinary citizens not have uniquely substantial power over policy decisions; they have little or no independent influence on policy at all. The latest Lifestyle | Daily Life news, tips, opinion and advice from The Sydney Morning Herald covering life and relationships, beauty, fashion, health & wellbeing The net alignments of the most influential, business-oriented groups are negatively related to the average citizens wishes. The field was fundamentally established by the works of Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley, in the 1920s, and Claude Shannon in the 1940s. 39 On the measurement of policy change, see Gilens Reference Gilens2012 (60) and note 18 (284). Social Work Practitioner-Researcher, 28(1), 36-52. Social Work: A beginner's text (full text), The Enduring Relevance of Indigenisation in African Social Work: A Critical Reflection on ASWEA's Legacy, VICTIMS EXPERIENCES OF RESTORATIVE MEDIATION: A DEVELOPMENTAL SOCIAL WORK PERSPECTIVE, The impact of social transformation on the non-government welfare sector and the social work profession, 591 terug Referee Revised Mbazima S Mathebane, KHOMANANI: AN HIV AND AIDS COMMUNITY MOBILISATION PROGRAMME FOR RESOURCE-CONSTRAINED SETTINGS, A content analysis of the South African National Drug Master Plan from a social development perspective. 3. Peschek, Joseph G. The chief predictions of pure theories of Majoritarian Electoral Democracy can be decisively rejected. Taken as a whole, then, our evidence strongly indicates that theories of Biased Pluralism are more descriptive of political reality than are theories of Majoritarian Pluralism. Moreover, when we restricted this same analysis to the smaller set of issues upon which both types of groups took positionsthat is, when we considered only cases in which business-based and mass-based interest groups were directly engaged with each otherthe contrast between the estimated impact of the two types of groups was even greater. Improving student achievement is the central responsibility of school leadership. Chapter 1 is about contending issues and classification of major theories in the field. Eight policy-preference questions that were included on both surveys showed that the preferences of the top 25 percent of income earners generally fell about half way between those of the average citizen and those of the wealthy. Explore science topics to find research in your field such as publications, questions, research projects, and methods. To what extent is the broad body of U.S. citizens sovereign, semi-sovereign, or largely powerless? He also added an ingenious gloss to Madison that tends to increase both the plausibility and the normative appeal of majoritarian interest-group pluralism: the assertion that all interests have at least a minimum of influence in group-dominated policy making, because policy makers must (in order to avoid subsequent punishment) heed all potential groups that would form if their interests were trampled upon. Some membership groups may reflect the views of corporate backers or their most affluent constituents. Theories of Economic-Elite Domination predict positive, significant, and substantial influence upon policy by economic elites. Human rights are moral principles or norms for certain standards of human behaviour and are regularly protected in municipal and international law. Note: All predictors are scaled to range from 0 to 1. The field was fundamentally established by the works of Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley, in the 1920s, and Claude Shannon in the 1940s. Frank Baumgartner and his colleagues, in their meticulous examination of 98 cases of congressional policy making in which interest groups were active, investigated whether the magnitude of group resources that were deployed was related to outcomes across those cases. Thomas Fergusons analysis of the political importance of major investors might be seen as a theory of economic elites. Cabinet minister Gillian Keegan suggested extending ban on police and military taking industrial action to other sectors Each of these theoretical traditions has given rise to a large body of literature. : vii The field is at the intersection of probability theory, statistics, computer science, statistical mechanics, information engineering, Clearly the predictions of Biased Pluralism theories fare substantially better than those of Majoritarian Pluralism theories. The researcher also considers whether grounded theory" implies theory only or includes other building blocks of science, how grounded theory is applied in management and leadership studies abroad and in the Republic of South Africa. Key, Jr., called latent public opinionmight be thought to offer a different prediction: that policy will tend to satisfy citizens underlying needs and values, rather than corresponding with their current policy preferences. So existing interest groups do not serve effectively as transmission belts for the wishes of the populace as a whole. Recognizing the complexity of the political world, we must also acknowledge the possibility that more than one of these theoretical traditions has some truth to it: that severaleven allof our sets of actors may have substantial, positive, independent influence on public policy. In his full-information ch. These results suggest that reality is best captured by mixed theories in which both individual economic elites and organized interest groups (including corporations, largely owned and controlled by wealthy elites) play a substantial part in affecting public policy, but the general public has little or no independent influence. The following assumptions are embedded within the ELCC school building-level leadership preparation standards: 1. 49 Bachrach and Baratz Reference Bachrach and Baratz1962, Lukes Reference Lukes1974. Born in Knigsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have made him one of the most influential figures in modern Western philosophy. 1 Tocqueville 2000, 23549. Note that if (as we find) the public has little or no influence on our issues, which tilt toward high salience, it is unlikely that the public has much influence on more technical or obscure matters. Still cant find what youre [] But it is not feasible to construct such an index for all our cases; this would require roughly twenty times as much work as did the major effort made by the Baumgartner research team on their cases. Hovens (2014). 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